Yongyang supply professional and honest service.
A lineup of JR East Shinkansen trains in October A lineup of JR West Shinkansen trains in October Map of Shinkansen lines (as of May , excluding the Hakataminami Line and Gala-Yuzawa Line extension). The section of the Nishi-Kyushu Shinkansen west of Takeo-onsen utilizes a cross-platform interchange with conventional express trains due to the suspension of the GCT development.
The Shinkansen (Japanese: &#;&#;&#;, [ɕiŋka&#;ɰ̃seɴ] &#;, lit.&#;'new trunk line'), colloquially known in English as the bullet train, is a network of high-speed railway lines in Japan. It was initially built to connect distant Japanese regions with Tokyo, the capital, to aid economic growth and development. Beyond long-distance travel, some sections around the largest metropolitan areas are used as a commuter rail network.[1][2] It is owned by the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency and operated by five Japan Railways Group companies.
Starting with the Tokaido Shinkansen (515.4 km; 320.3 mi) in ,[3] the network has expanded to consist of 2,951.3 km (1,833.9 mi) of lines with maximum speeds of 260&#;320 km/h (160&#;200 mph), 283.5 km (176.2 mi) of Mini-shinkansen lines with a maximum speed of 130 km/h (80 mph), and 10.3 km (6.4 mi) of spur lines with Shinkansen services.[4] The network links most major cities on the islands of Honshu and Kyushu, and connects to Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido. An extension to Sapporo is under construction and scheduled to open in March .[5] The maximum operating speed is 320 km/h (200 mph) (on a 387.5 km (241 mi) section of the Tōhoku Shinkansen).[6] Test runs have reached 443 km/h (275 mph) for conventional rail in , and up to a world record 603 km/h (375 mph) for SCMaglev trains in April .[7]
The original Tokaido Shinkansen, connecting Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka, three of Japan's largest cities, is one of the world's busiest high-speed rail lines. In the one-year period preceding March , it carried 159 million passengers,[8] and since its opening more than six decades ago, it has transported more than 6.4 billion total passengers.[3] At peak times, the line carries up to 16 trains per hour in each direction with 16 cars each (1,323-seat capacity and occasionally additional standing passengers) with a minimum headway of three minutes between trains.[9]
The Shinkansen network of Japan had the highest annual passenger ridership (a maximum of 353 million in ) of any high-speed rail network until , until the Chinese high-speed railway network surpassed it at 370 million passengers annually, which later reached over 2.9 billion annual passengers in .[10]
[
edit
]
Shinkansen (&#;&#;&#;) in Japanese means 'new trunk line' or 'new main line', but this word is used to describe both the railway lines the trains run on and the trains themselves.[11][12] In English, the trains are also known as the bullet train. The term bullet train (&#;&#;&#;&#;, dangan ressha) originates from , and was the initial name given to the Shinkansen project in its earliest planning stages.[13] Furthermore, the name super express (&#;&#;&#;, chō-tokkyū), used exclusively until for Hikari trains on the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, is used today in English-language announcements and signage.
[
edit
]
A JNR map from the October English-language timetable, showing the then-new Tokaido Shinkansen line (in red) and conventional lines A 0 series set in front of Mount FujiJapan was the first country to build dedicated railway lines for high-speed travel. Because of the mountainous terrain, the existing network consisted of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow-gauge lines, which generally took indirect routes and could not be adapted to higher speeds due to technical limitations of narrow-gauge rail. For example, if a standard-gauge rail has a curve with a maximum speed of 145 km/h (90 mph), the same curve on narrow-gauge rail will have a maximum allowable speed of 130 km/h (81 mph).[14] Consequently, Japan had a greater need for new high-speed lines than countries where the existing standard gauge or broad gauge rail system had more upgrade potential.
Among the key people credited with the construction of the first Shinkansen are Hideo Shima, the Chief Engineer, and Shinji Sogō, the first President of Japanese National Railways (JNR) who managed to persuade politicians to back the plan. Other significant people responsible for its technical development were Tadanao Miki, Tadashi Matsudaira, and Hajime Kawanabe based at the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), part of JNR. They were responsible for much of the technical development of the first line, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen. All three had worked on aircraft design during World War II.[15]
[
edit
]
The popular English name bullet train is a literal translation of the Japanese term dangan ressha (&#;&#;&#;&#;), a nickname given to the project while it was initially discussed in the s. The name stuck because of the original 0 Series Shinkansen's resemblance to a bullet and its high speed.
The Shinkansen name was first formally used in for a proposed standard gauge passenger and freight line between Tokyo and Shimonoseki that would have used steam and electric locomotives with a top speed of 200 km/h (120 mph). Over the next three years, the Ministry of Railways drew up more ambitious plans to extend the line to Beijing (through a tunnel to Korea) and even Singapore, and build connections to the Trans-Siberian Railway and other trunk lines in Asia. These plans were abandoned in as Japan's position in World War II worsened. However, some construction did commence on the line; several tunnels on the present-day Shinkansen date to the war-era project.[16]
[
edit
]
Following the end of World War II, high-speed rail was forgotten for several years while traffic of passengers and freight steadily increased on the conventional Tōkaidō Main Line along with the reconstruction of Japanese industry and economy. By the mid-s the Tōkaidō Line was operating at full capacity, and the Ministry of Railways decided to revisit the Shinkansen project. In , Odakyu Electric Railway introduced its series SE Romancecar train, setting a world speed record of 145 km/h (90 mph) for a narrow gauge train when JNR leased a trainset in order to perform high-speed tests.[17] This train gave designers the confidence that they could safely build an even faster standard gauge train. Thus the first Shinkansen, the 0 series, was built on the success of the Romancecar.[citation needed]
In the s, the Japanese national attitude was that as was happening in the United States, railways would soon be outdated and replaced by air travel and highways.[18] However, Shinji Sogō, President of Japanese National Railways, insisted strongly on the possibility of high-speed rail, and the Shinkansen project was implemented.[19]
Government approval came in December , and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in April . The cost of constructing the Shinkansen was at first estimated at nearly 200 billion yen,[a] which was raised in the form of a government loan, railway bonds and a low-interest loan of US$80 million from the World Bank. Initial estimates, however, were understated and the actual cost was about 380 billion yen.[20] As the budget shortfall became clear in , Sogo resigned to take responsibility.[21]
A test facility for rolling stock, called the Kamonomiya Model Section, opened in Odawara in .[22]
[
edit
]
JNR Passenger Timetable, Table 1, showing shinkansen service on the New Tokaido LineThe Tōkaidō Shinkansen began service on 1 October , in time for the first Tokyo Olympics.[23] The conventional Limited Express service took six hours and 40 minutes from Tokyo to Osaka, but the Shinkansen made the trip in just four hours, shortened to three hours and ten minutes by . It enabled day trips between Tokyo and Osaka, the two largest metropolises in Japan, significantly changed the style of business and life of the Japanese people, and increased new traffic demand. The service was an immediate success, reaching the 100 million passenger mark in less than three years on 13 July , and one billion passengers in . Sixteen-car trains were introduced for Expo '70 in Osaka. With an average of 23,000 passengers per hour in each direction in , the Tōkaidō Shinkansen was the world's busiest high-speed rail line.[24] As of , the train's 50th anniversary, daily passenger traffic rose to 391,000 which, spread over its 18-hour schedule, represented an average of just under 22,000 passengers per hour.[25]
The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 series, ran at speeds of up to 210 km/h (130 mph), later increased to 220 km/h (137 mph). The last of these trains, with their classic bullet-nosed appearance, were retired on 30 November . A driving car from one of the 0 series trains was donated by JR West to the National Railway Museum in York, United Kingdom in .[26]
[
edit
]
The Tōkaidō Shinkansen's rapid success prompted an extension westward to Okayama, Hiroshima and Fukuoka (the San'yō Shinkansen), which was completed in .[27] Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was an ardent supporter of the Shinkansen, and his government proposed an extensive network paralleling most existing trunk lines. Two new lines, the Tōhoku Shinkansen and Jōetsu Shinkansen, were built following this plan. Many other planned lines were delayed or scrapped entirely as JNR slid into debt throughout the late s, largely because of the high cost of building the Shinkansen network. By the early s, the company was practically insolvent, leading to its privatization in .
Development of the Shinkansen by the privatised regional JR companies has continued, with new train models developed, each generally with its own distinctive appearance (such as the 500 series introduced by JR West). Since , Shinkansen trains run regularly at speeds up to 320 km/h (200 mph) on the Tōhoku Shinkansen; only the Shanghai maglev train, China Railway High-speed networks, and the Indonesian Jakarta-Bandung High-speed railway have commercial services that operate faster.[28][29][needs update]
Since , development has also been underway for the Chūō Shinkansen, a planned maglev line from Tokyo to Osaka. On 21 April , a seven-car L0 series maglev trainset set a world speed record of 603 km/h (375 mph).[7]
[
edit
]
To enable high-speed operation, Shinkansen uses a range of advanced technology compared with conventional rail, achieving not only high speed but also a high standard of safety and comfort. Its success has influenced other railways in the world, demonstrating the importance and advantages of high-speed rail.
[
edit
]
Shinkansen routes never intersect with slower, narrow-gauge conventional lines (except mini-shinkansen, which runs along these older lines). Consequently, the shinkansen is not affected by slower local or freight trains (except for Hokkaido Shinkansen while traveling through the Seikan Tunnel), and has the capacity to operate many high-speed trains punctually. In addition, shinkansen routes (excluding mini-shinkansen) are completely grade separated from roads and highways, meaning railway crossings are almost eliminated. Tracks are strictly off-limits with penalties against trespassing strictly regulated by law. The routes use tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles rather than around them, with a minimum curve radius of 4,000 m (13,123 ft) (2,500 m (8,202 ft) on the oldest Tōkaidō Shinkansen).[14]
[
edit
]
Shinkansen standard gauge track, with welded rails to reduce vibrationThe Shinkansen uses 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1&#;2 in) standard gauge in contrast to the 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow gauge of most other lines in Japan. Continuous welded rail and swingnose crossing points are employed, eliminating gaps at turnouts and crossings. Long rails are used, joined by expansion joints to minimize gauge fluctuation due to thermal elongation and shrinkage.
A combination of ballasted and slab track is used, with slab track exclusively employed on concrete bed sections such as viaducts and tunnels. Slab track is significantly more cost-effective in tunnel sections, since the lower track height reduces the cross-sectional area of the tunnel, reducing construction costs up to 30%.[30] However, the smaller diameter of Shinkansen tunnels, compared to some other high-speed lines, has resulted in the issue of tunnel boom becoming a concern for residents living close to tunnel portals.
The slab track consists of rails, fasteners and track slabs with a cement asphalt mortar. On the roadbed and in tunnels, circular upstands, measuring 400&#;520 mm (16&#;20 inches) in diameter and 200 mm (7.9 inches) high, are located at 5-metre intervals. The prefabricated upstands are made of either reinforced concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete; they prevent the track slab from moving latitudinally or longitudinally. One track slab weighs approximately 5 tons and is 2,220&#;2,340 mm (87&#;92 inches) wide, 4,900&#;4,950 mm (193&#;195 inches) long and 160&#;200 mm (6.3&#;7.9 inches) thick.[31]
[
edit
]
Braking curve for the original ATC-1 used on the Tokaido Shinkansen (Vertical axis represents the speed of the train whereas the horizontal axis represents the distance.) Replica of the Shinkansen CTC as seen at the Kyoto Railway MuseumThe Shinkansen employs an ATC (automatic train control) system, eliminating the need for trackside signals. It uses a comprehensive system of automatic train protection.[21] Centralized traffic control manages all train operations, and all tasks relating to train movement, track, station and schedule are networked and computerized.
[
edit
]
Shinkansen uses a 25 kV AC overhead power supply (20 kV AC on Mini-shinkansen lines), to overcome the limitations of the 1,500 V direct current used on the existing electrified narrow-gauge system. Power is distributed along the train's axles to reduce the heavy axle loads under single power cars.[21] The AC frequency of the power supply for the Tokaido Shinkansen is 60 Hz.
[
edit
]
Japanese loading gauge legend. Green: Shinkansen loading gaugeShinkansen trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), offering fast acceleration, deceleration and reduced damage to the track because of the use of lighter vehicles compared to locomotives or power cars. The coaches are air-sealed to ensure stable air pressure when entering tunnels at high speed.
Shinkansen trains (excluding mini-Shinkansen) are also built to a larger loading gauge compared to conventional-speed rolling stock.[32] This larger loading gauge permits wider coaches, allowing for 5-abreast seating (2+3) in Standard Class coaches, compared to the more common 4-abreast (2+2) seating usually found elsewhere. On occasions, this wider loading gauge was also used to allow 6-abreast seating (3+3) on certain trains, such as the E1 and E4 series sets. This, combined with a lack of power cars, allows for a higher passenger capacity within a shorter train length. However, since mini-Shinkansen lines are effectively track-regauged conventional lines, the conventional loading gauge for 1,067mm lines still applies on mini-Shinkansen lines.
Shinkansen N700A Series, car 01
[
edit
]
The Shinkansen has used EMUs from the outset, with the 0 Series Shinkansen having all axles powered. Other railway manufacturers were traditionally reluctant or unable to use distributed traction configurations (Talgo, the German ICE 2 and the French (and subsequently South Korean) TGV (and KTX-I and KTX-Sancheon) use the locomotive (also known as power car) configuration with the Renfe Class 102 and continues with it for the Talgo AVRIL because it is not possible to use powered bogies as part of Talgo's bogie design, which uses a modified Jacobs bogie with a single axle instead of two and allows the wheels to rotate independently of each other, on the ICE 2, TGV and KTX it is because it easily allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment.[33]) In Japan, significant engineering desirability exists for the electric multiple unit configuration. A greater proportion of motored axles permits higher acceleration, so the Shinkansen does not lose as much time if stopping frequently. Shinkansen lines have more stops in proportion to their lengths than high-speed lines elsewhere in the world.
[
edit
]
Map of Shinkansen services in the Chūbu and Kantō regions as of MarchThe main Shinkansen lines are:
In practice, the Tokaido, San'yō, and Kyushu lines form a contiguous west/southbound line from Tokyo, as train services run between the Tokaido and San'yō lines and between the San'yō and Kyushu lines, though the lines are operated by different companies.
The Tokaido Shinkansen tracks are not physically connected to the lines of the Tohoku Shinkansen at Tokyo Station, as they use different electrification standards, signaling systems, and earthquake mitigation devices. There also exists a dispute between JR East and JR Central about the use of the two platforms which were added to the Tokaido line's half of Tokyo station. Before JNR's privatization, they were conceived as being shared with the Tohoku line, and their construction used funds allocated to the Tohoku line's extension to Tokyo; however, the extension was finished after privatization, by which time the platforms were owned by JR Central. Therefore, there is no through service between those lines. All northbound services from Tokyo travel along the Tohoku Shinkansen until at least Ōmiya before splitting off towards Sendai or Takasaki.
Two further lines, known as Mini-shinkansen, have also been constructed by re-gauging and upgrading existing sections of line:
There are two standard-gauge lines not technically classified as Shinkansen lines but run Shinkansen trains as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage/maintenance yards:
[
edit
]
The following lines are under construction. These lines except Chūō Shinkansen, called Seibi Shinkansen [ja] or planned Shinkansen, are the Shinkansen projects designated in the Basic Plan of the Shinkansen Railway [ja] decided by the government.
[
5]
[
35]
[
36]
(Originally )[
edit
]
Line Route Speed Length Construction proposed Expected start of revenue services Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen Phase 2 Takeo-Onsen &#; Shin-Tosu 260 km/h (162 mph) TBD TBD TBD Hokuriku Shinkansen Phase 4 Tsuruga &#; Obama &#; Kyoto &#; Shin-Osaka 260 km/h (162 mph) TBD FY Chūō Shinkansen Phase 2 Nagoya &#; Shin-Osaka 505 km/h (314 mph) 152.4 km (95 mi) TBD Unknown[
36]
(Originally )[
edit
]
The Narita Shinkansen project to connect Tokyo to Narita International Airport, initiated in the s but halted in after landowner protests, has been officially cancelled and removed from the Basic Plan governing Shinkansen construction. Parts of its planned right-of-way were used by the Narita Sky Access Line which opened in , and the Keiyo Line reused space originally set aside for the Narita Shinkansen terminus at Tokyo Station. Although the Sky Access Line uses standard-gauge track, it was not built to Shinkansen specifications and there are no plans to convert it into a full Shinkansen line.
[
edit
]
Map of proposed Shinkansen linesMany Shinkansen lines were proposed during the boom of the early s but have yet to be constructed and have subsequently been shelved indefinitely.
(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
,Hokkaidō Minami-mawari Shinkansen
): Oshamanbe&#;Muroran&#;Sapporo(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
): Toyama&#;Niigata&#;Aomori(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
): Fukushima&#;Yamagata&#;Akita(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
): Nagoya&#;Tsuruga(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
): Osaka&#;Tottori&#;Matsue&#;Shimonoseki(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
,Chūgoku Ōdan Shinkansen
): Okayama&#;Matsue(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
): Osaka&#;Tokushima&#;Takamatsu&#;Matsuyama&#;Ōita(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
,Shikoku Ōdan Shinkansen
): Okayama&#;Kōchi&#;Matsuyama[
39]
A profitability study has also been commissioned by the city of Oita in that found the route to be potentially profitable[
40]
(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
,Higashi-Kyushu Shinkansen
): Fukuoka&#;Ōita&#;Miyazaki&#;Kagoshima(
&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;
,Kyushu Ōdan Shinkansen
): Ōita&#;KumamotoIn addition, the Basic Plan specified that the Jōetsu Shinkansen should start from Shinjuku, not Tokyo Station, which would have required building an additional 30 km (19 mi) of track between Shinjuku and Ōmiya. While no construction work was ever started, land along the proposed track, including an underground section leading to Shinjuku Station, remains reserved. If capacity on the Tokyo&#;Ōmiya section proves insufficient at some point, construction of the Shinjuku&#;Ōmiya link may be reconsidered.
In December , then transport minister Seiji Maehara proposed a bullet train link to Haneda Airport, using an existing spur that connects the Tōkaidō Shinkansen to a train depot. JR Central called the plan "unrealistic" due to tight train schedules on the existing line, but reports said that Maehara wished to continue discussions on the idea.[41] The succeeding minister has not indicated whether this proposal remains supported. While the plan may become more feasible after the opening the Chūō Shinkansen (sometimes referred to as a bypass to the Tokaido Shinkansen) frees up capacity, construction is already underway for other rail improvements between Haneda and Tokyo station expected to be completed prior to the opening of the Tokyo Olympics, so any potential Shinkansen service would likely offer only marginal benefit. Despite these plans ultimately not being realized (owing in part due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic), rail projects in the vicinity of Haneda Airport, including the Haneda Airport Access Line and the Tokyo Rinkai Subway Line, continue to undergo planning.[42]
[
edit
]
Tokyo Station Tokaido Shinkansen platforms, September The Shinkansen fare system is integrated with Japan's low-speed intercity railway lines, with a surcharge is required to ride the Shinkansen. Here, an ordinary ticket from Tokyo to Takamatsu is coupled with a Shinkansen express fare ticket from Tokyo to Okayama, allowing use of the Shinkansen from Tokyo to Okayama and use of local lines from Okayama to Takamatsu. For trips exclusively on one Shinkansen, the base fare and Shinkansen express fare may be combined into a single ticket.Originally intended to carry passenger trains by day and freight trains by night, the Shinkansen lines carried exclusively passengers for the first five and a half decades of their operation. Light freight has been carried on some passenger services since , and there are plans to expand this with freight-only trains in the future.[43][44]
The system shuts down between midnight and 06:00 every day for maintenance. Japan's few remaining overnight passenger trains run on the older, narrow-gauge network that the Shinkansen parallels.
There are three principal service types on the Shinkansen:
[
edit
]
Tōhoku, Hokkaido, Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen[
edit
]
Jōetsu Shinkansen[
edit
]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Trains are up to sixteen cars long. With each car measuring 25 m (82 ft) in length, the longest trains are 400 m (1&#;4 mile) end to end. Stations are similarly long to accommodate these trains. Some of Japan's high-speed maglev trains are considered Shinkansen,[46] while other slower maglev trains (such as Linimo, serving local communities in and nearby Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture) are intended as alternatives to conventional urban rapid transit systems.
[
edit
]
Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen[
edit
]
0 series
100 series
300 series
500 series
700 series
700 series (Hikari Rail Star)
N700 series
N700A series
N700S series
[
edit
]
800 series
N700 series (Kyushu)
N700S- series (Nishi Kyushu)
[
edit
]
200 series
E1 series
E2 series
E4 series
E5 series
H5 series
E7 series
W7 series
[
edit
]
400 series
E3 series (Komachi)
E3 series (Tsubasa)
E6 series
E8 series
[
edit
]
Class
Class 951
Class 961
Class 962
WIN350
STAR21
300X
Gauge change train (2nd generation)
Fastech 360S
Fastech 360Z
ALFA-X
[
edit
]
These trains were and are used only for experimental runs, though the L0 series could be a passenger train.
ML100
ML500
MLX01
L0 series
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Class 955 "300X"[
edit
]
L0 Series Shinkansen, unconventional world speed record holder (603 km/h or 374.7 mph)[
If you are looking for more details, kindly visit Japanese Standard Rails.
edit
]
[
edit
]
The Shinkansen is very reliable thanks to several factors, including its near-total separation from slower traffic. There are separate laws governing interfering with or otherwise obstructing Shinkansen trains, tracks, or its operation.[citation needed] In , JR Central reported that the Shinkansen's average delay from schedule per train was 24 seconds. This includes delays due to uncontrollable causes, such as natural disasters.[53]
[
edit
]
Over the Shinkansen's 60-plus year history, carrying over 10 billion passengers, there have been no passenger fatalities due to train accidents such as derailments or collisions,[3] despite frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Injuries and a single fatality have been caused by doors closing on passengers or their belongings; attendants are employed at platforms to prevent such accidents.[54] There have, however, been suicides by passengers jumping both from and in front of moving trains.[55] On 30 June , a passenger committed suicide on board a Shinkansen train by setting himself on fire, killing another passenger and seriously injuring seven other people.[56]
There have been two derailments of Shinkansen trains in passenger service. The first one occurred during the Chūetsu earthquake on 23 October . Eight of ten cars of the Toki No. 325 train on the Jōetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata. There were no casualties among the 154 passengers.[57]
Another derailment happened on 2 March on the Akita Shinkansen when the Komachi No. 25 train derailed in blizzard conditions in Daisen, Akita. No passengers were injured.[58]
In the event of an earthquake, an earthquake detection system can bring the train to a stop very quickly; newer trainsets are lighter and have stronger braking systems, allowing for quicker stopping. New anti-derailment devices were installed on tracks after analysis of the Jōetsu derailment.[59][60]
Several months after the exposure of the Kobe Steel falsification scandal, which is among the suppliers of high-strength steel for Shinkansen trainsets, cracks were found upon inspection of a single bogie, and removed from service on 11 December .[61]
On 23 January , a massive power outage struck the Tohoku, Hokuriku and Joetsu Shinkansen lines, resulting in the cancellation of 283 trains and affecting about 120,000 passengers. JR East said that the outage was caused by a Kagayaki service train touching an overhead power cable which was left dangling after the metal rod supporting it fractured between Omiya Station in Saitama and Ueno Station in Tokyo. The incident damaged the train's pantographs and a window,[62] while two railway employees were hospitalized following an explosion that occurred at the site during repairs.[63] Most Shinkansen services were restored the following morning.[64]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
The Shinkansen has had a significant beneficial effect on Japan's business, economy, society, environment and culture beyond mere construction and operational contributions.[65] The resultant time savings alone from switching from a conventional to a high-speed network have been estimated at 400 million hours, and the system has an economic contribution of ¥500 billion per year.[65] That does not include the savings from reduced reliance on imported fuel, which also has national security benefits. Shinkansen lines, particularly in the very crowded coastal Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis, met two primary goals:
[
65]
However, upon the introduction of the Basic Plan the initial prudence in developing Shinkansen lines gave way to political considerations to extend the mode to far less populated regions of the country, partly to spread these benefits beyond the key centres of Kanto and Kinki. Although in some cases regional extension was frustrated by protracted land acquisition (sometimes influenced by the cancellation of the Narita Shinkansen following fierce protests by locals), over time Shinkansen lines were built to relatively sparsely populated areas with the intent to disperse the population away from the capital.
Such expansion had a significant cost. JNR, the national railway company, was already burdened with subsidizing unprofitable rural and regional railways. It then assumed Shinkansen construction debt until the government corporation eventually owed some ¥28 trillion, contributing to it being regionalised and privatized in .[66] The privatized JRs eventually paid ¥9.2 trillion to acquire JNR's Shinkansen network.[65]
Following privatization, the JR group of companies have continued Shinkansen network expansion to less populated areas, but with far more flexibility to spin-off unprofitable railways or cut costs than in JNR days. An important factor is the post bubble zero interest-rate policy that allows JR to borrow huge sums of capital without significant concern regarding repayment timing.
A UCLA study found that the presence of a Shinkansen line had improved housing affordability by making it more realistic for lower-income city workers to live in exurban areas much further away from the city, which tend to have cheaper housing options. That in turn helps the city to "decentralise" and reduce city property prices.[67]
[
edit
]
Traveling by the Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka produces only around 16% of the carbon dioxide of the equivalent journey by car, a saving of 15,000 tons of CO2 per year.[65]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Noise pollution concerns have made increasing speed more difficult. In Japan, population density is high and there have been strong protests against the Shinkansen's noise pollution. Its noise is thus limited to less than 70 dB in residential areas.[68] Improvement and reduction of the pantograph, weight saving of cars, and construction of noise barriers and other measures have been implemented. Research is primarily aimed at reducing operational noise, particularly the tunnel boom phenomenon caused when trains transit tunnels at high speed.
[
edit
]
Because of the risk of earthquakes in Japan, the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System (UrEDAS) (an earthquake warning system) was introduced in . It enables automatic braking of Shinkansen trains in the event of large earthquakes.
[
edit
]
The Tōkaidō Shinkansen often experiences heavy snow in the area around Maibara Station between December and February, requiring trains to reduce speed thus disrupting the timetable. Snow-dispersing sprinkler systems have been installed, but delays of 10&#;20 minutes still occur during snowy weather. Snow-related treefalls have also caused service interruptions. Along the Jōetsu Shinkansen route, snow can be very heavy, with depths of two to three metres; the line is equipped with stronger sprinklers and slab track to mitigate the snow's effects. Despite having multiple days with delays longer than 30 minutes, the Tōhoku Shinkansen still presents a slight advantage in reliability compared to air travel on days with significant snowfall.[69]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Annual ridership figures for selected years (in millions of passengers)[
70]
Tokaido Tohoku San'yō Joetsu Nagano Kyushu Hokkaido Sum* Total* The sum of the ridership of individual lines does not equal the ridership of the system because a single rider may be counted multiple times when using multiple lines, to get proper ridership figures for a system, in the above case, is only counted once.
** Only refers to 6 days of operation: 26 March (opening date) to 31 March (end of FY).
Until , Japan's high-speed rail system had the highest annual patronage of any system worldwide, when China's HSR network's patronage reached 1.7 billion and became the world's highest.[71][unreliable source?][72]
[
edit
]
Cumulative high-speed rail passengers (in millions of passengers)[
73]
[unreliable source?
][
74]
Year Shinkansen (see notes) Asia (other) Europe World Shinkansen share (%) 11.0 0 0 11.0 100% 1,616.3 0 0 1,616.3 100% 2,390.3 0 45.7 2,436.0 98.1% 3,559.1 0 129.9 3,689.0 96.5% 5,018.0 0 461 5,479 91.6% 6,531.7 0 1,103.5 7,635.1 85.5% 8,088.3 52.2 2,014.6 10,155.1 79.6% 9,651.0 965 3,177.0 15,417 70.8% 10,344 2,230 3,715 16,210 64.5% 11,050 3,910 4,300 19,260 57.4%Notes:
[
75]
and Korea with 54.5 million[
76]
and China with 672 million in .[
77]
Cumulative ridership since October is over 5 billion passengers for the Tokaido Shinkansen Line alone and 10 billion passengers for Japan's entire shinkansen network.[71][unreliable source?] Nevertheless, China's share is increasing fast, as close to 9.5 billion passengers in that nation have been served by the end of and is projected to pass Japan's cumulative numbers by as early as .[78]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Tōhoku Shinkansen[
edit
]
E5 series trains, capable of up to 320 km/h (200 mph), initially limited to 300 km/h (186 mph), were introduced on the Tōhoku Shinkansen in March . Operation at the maximum speed of 320 km/h (200 mph) between Utsunomiya and Morioka on this route commenced on 16 March . It reduced the journey time to around 3 hours for trains from Tokyo to Shin-Aomori, a distance of 674 km (419 mi).
Extensive trials using the Fastech 360 test trains have shown that operation at 360 km/h (224 mph) is not feasible because of problems of noise pollution (particularly tunnel boom), overhead wire wear, and braking distances. On 30 October , JR East announced that it was pursuing research and development to increase speeds to 360 km/h (224 mph) on the Tohoku Shinkansen by .[79] The ALFA-X is undergoing testing.
[
edit
]
Upon commencement of services in , the maximum speed on the approximately 82 km (51 mi) dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was 140 km/h (85 mph), which was increased to 160 km/h (100 mph) by March .[80] There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is 3 hours, 57 minutes.
During the -21 New Year Holiday period, certain Shinkansen services were operated at 210 km/h (130 mph) on the dual gauge section and was proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3&#;6 May , due to fewer freight trains operating.[80]
To achieve the full benefit of Shinkansen trains travelling on the dual gauge section at 260 km/h (160 mph) (the maximum speed proposed through the tunnel), alternatives are being considered, such as a system to automatically slow Shinkansen trains to 200 km/h (125 mph) when passing narrow-gauge trains, and/or loading freight trains onto special "Train on Train" standard-gauge trains (akin to a covered piggyback flatcar train) built to withstand the shock wave of oncoming Shinkansen trains traveling at full speed. This would enable a travel time from Tokyo to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto of 3 hours and 45 minutes, a saving of 12 minutes.
[
edit
]
Construction of the Hokuriku Shinkansen in FukuiThe Hokuriku Shinkansen was extended from Kanazawa to Tsuruga on 16 March .[81]
There are further plans to extend the line from Tsuruga to Osaka, with the Obama-Kyoto route chosen by the government on 20 December ,[37] after a government committee investigated the five nominated routes.[82]
Construction of the extension beyond Tsuruga is not expected to commence before , with a projected 15-year construction period. On 6 March the government committee announced the chosen route from Kyoto to Shin-Osaka is to be via Kyotanabe, with a station at Matsuiyamate on the Katamachi Line.[83][84]
[
edit
]
To extend the benefits of the Hokuriku Shinkansen to stations west of Tsuruga before the line to Osaka is completed, JR West was working in partnership with Talgo on the development of a Gauge Change Train (CGT) capable of operating under both the 25 kV AC electrification used on the Shinkansen and the 1.5 kV DC system employed on conventional lines. A trial of the proposed bogie was undertaken on a purpose-built 180 m (590 ft) gauge-changer at Tsuruga, but it was unsuccessful and the plans were abandoned.[85]
Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen[
edit
]
The Hokkaido Shinkansen forms an extension of the Tohoku Shinkansen north of Shin-Aomori to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station (north of the Hokkaido city of Hakodate) through the Seikan Tunnel, which was converted to dual gauge as part of the project, opening in March .
JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo to open by March ,[5] with tunnelling work on the 5.27 km (3.27 mi) Murayama tunnel, situated about 1 km (0.62 mi) north of Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station, commencing in March , and due to be completed by March . The 211.3 km (131.3 mi) extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Oshima (~26.5 km (16.5 mi)), Teine (~26.5 km (16.5 mi)) and Shiribeshi (~18 km (11 mi)).[86]
Although an extension from Sapporo to Asahikawa was included in the list of planned lines, at this time it is unknown whether the Hokkaido Shinkansen will be extended beyond Sapporo.
[
edit
]
JR Kyushu opened the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen from Takeo-Onsen to Nagasaki (built to full Shinkansen standard) on 23 September , with the existing narrow gauge section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen proposed to be upgraded as part of this project.
This proposal initially involved introducing Gauge Change Trains (GCT) travelling from Hakata to Shin-Tosu (26.3 km (16.3 mi)) on the existing Kyushu Shinkansen line, then passing through a specific gauge changing (standard to narrow) section of track linking to the existing Nagasaki Main Line, along which it would travel to Hizen Yamaguchi (37.6 km (23.4 mi)), then onto the Sasebo Line to Takeo-Onsen (13.7 km (8.5 mi)), where another gauge changing section (narrow to standard) would lead onto the final Shinkansen line to Nagasaki (66 km (41 mi)). However, significant technical issues with the axles of the GCT resulted in its cancellation.
On 28 October , JR Kyushu announced it would utilize a 6-car version of the N700S for the isolated Shinkansen section from Nagasaki, with 'cross platform' change to a relay service at Takeo Onsen station to connect to Hakata.[47] JR Kyushu also announced the service would continue to use the name 'Kamome' for the Hakata-Nagasaki service, which has been in use since .[45]
The Shinkansen line shortens the distance between Hakata and Nagasaki by 6.2% (9.6 km (6.0 mi)), and while only 64% of the route is built to full Shinkansen standards, it eliminated the slowest sections of the previous narrow gauge route.
As part of the GCT proposal, the 12.8 km (8.0 mi) section of single track between Hizen Yamaguchi and Takeo Onsen was proposed to be duplicated. However, due to the issues with the development of the GCT, the proposal did not advance.
The initial section between Nagasaki and Takeo Onsen opened on 23 September .[87]
Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen)[
edit
]
Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since , running at speeds of over 500 km/h (310 mph). As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for public usage.[88] An extension of the test track from 18.4 to 42.8 km (11.4 to 26.6 mi) was completed in June , enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August . This section will be incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in , with 86% of the 286 km (178 mi) route to be in tunnels. Plans were approved in for the Chūō Shinkansen to begin at Tokyo Station, rather than Shinagawa Station as initially planned due to difficulties in securing land.[89]
The CEO of JR Central originally announced plans to have the maglev Chūō Shinkansen operating from Tokyo to Nagoya by ,[88] with a subsequent extension to Osaka by . However, as of , continuing controversy over routing across the Ōi River has prevented the start of construction in Shizuoka, and there is no target date for opening.[90]
Following the shortest route (through the Japanese Alps), JR Central estimates that it will take 40 minutes to run from Shinagawa to Nagoya. The planned travel time from Shinagawa to Shin-Osaka is 1 hour 7 minutes. The Tokaido Shinkansen as of had a minimum connection time of 2 hours 19 minutes.[91]
While the government has granted approval[92] for the shortest route between Tokyo and Nagoya, some prefectural governments, particularly Nagano, lobbied to have the line routed farther north to serve the city of Chino and either Ina or Kiso-Fukushima. However, that would increase both the travel time (from Tokyo to Nagoya) and the cost of construction.[93] JR Central has confirmed it will construct the line through Kanagawa Prefecture, and terminate at Tokyo Station.
The route for the Nagoya to Osaka section is also contested. It is planned to go via Nara, about 40 km (25 mi) south of Kyoto. Kyoto is lobbying to have the route moved north and be largely aligned with the existing Tokaido Shinkansen, which services Kyoto and not Nara.[94]
Mini-shinkansen (&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;) is the name given to the routes where former narrow gauge lines have been converted to standard gauge to allow Shinkansen trains to travel to cities without the expense of constructing full Shinkansen standard lines.
Two mini-shinkansen routes have been constructed: the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen. Shinkansen services to these lines traverse the Tohoku Shinkansen line from Tokyo before branching off to traditional main lines. On both the Yamagata/Shinjo and Akita lines, the narrow gauge lines were regauged, resulting in the local services being operated by standard gauge versions of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) suburban/interurban rolling stock. On the Akita line between Omagari and Akita, one of the two narrow gauge lines was regauged, and a section of the remaining narrow gauge line is dual gauge, providing the opportunity for Shinkansen services to pass each other without stopping.
The maximum speed on these lines is 130 km/h (81 mph), however the overall travel time to/from Tokyo is improved due to the elimination of the need for passengers to change trains at Fukushima and Morioka respectively.
As the Loading gauge (size of the train that can travel on a line) was not altered when the rail gauge was widened, only Shinkansen trains specially built for these routes can travel on the lines. They are the E3 and E6 series trains.
As some of the E3 series on the Yamagata Shinkansen will be retiring soon, they will be replaced by the new E8 Series Shinkansen trains from Spring with an increased speed of 300 km/h (186 mph), up from the 275 km/h (171 mph) on the E3 Series trains.[citation needed]
Whilst no further Mini-shinkansen routes have been proposed, it remains an option for providing Shinkansen services to cities on the narrow gauge network.
[
edit
]
Construction of a Base tunnel on the Yamagata Shinkansen is proposed, with JR East having undertaken a survey of a planned route from Niwasaka to Sekine, just south of Yonezawa station.[95] 23.1 km (14.4 mi) of the proposed 24.9 km (15.5 mi) line would be in tunnel, mostly to the north of the existing 88 km (55 mi) Fukushima &#; Yamagata section. To be built on an improved alignment, the tunnel would lower journey times between Fukushima and Yamagata by ~10 min due to a proposed line speed of up to 200 km/h.
The tunnel would avoid the Itaya Toge pass through the Ou mountains west of Fukushima. Gradients range from 3.0% to 3.8% and the line reaches an altitude of 548 m (1,798 ft). The curvature and steep grades limit train speeds to 55 km/h (34 mph) or less, and the line is vulnerable to heavy rain and snowfall as well as high winds. Between and a total of 410 Yamagata mini-Shinkansen services were either suspended or delayed, and 40% of these incidents occurred on the line over the Itaya Toge pass.
If the ¥150 billion base tunnel is authorised, detailed design would take five years and construction another 15 years. The cost could increase by ¥12 billion if the tunnel were to be built with a cross-section large enough to permit the line to be upgraded to the full Shinkansen loading gauge.
[
edit
]
This is the name for the concept of using a single train that is designed to travel on both 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow gauge railway lines and the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1&#;2 in) standard gauge used by Shinkansen train services in Japan. The trucks/bogies of the Gauge Change Train (GCT) allow the wheels to be unlocked from the axles, narrowed or widened as necessary, and then relocked. This allows a GCT to traverse both standard gauge and narrow gauge tracks without the expense of regauging lines.
Three test trains were constructed, with the second set having completed reliability trials on the Yosan Line east of Matsuyama (in Shikoku) in September . The third set was undertaking gauge changing trials at Shin-Yatsushiro Station (on Kyushu), commencing in for a proposed three-year period, however testing was suspended in December after accumulating approximating 33,000 km (21,000 mi), following the discovery of defective thrust bearing oil seals on the bogies.[96] The train was being trialled between Kumamoto, travelling on the narrow gauge line to Shin-Yatsushiro, where a gauge changer was installed, so the GCT could be trialled on the Shinkansen line to Kagoshima. It was anticipated the train would travel approximately 600,000 km (370,000 mi) over the three-year trial.
A new "full standard" Shinkansen line is under construction from Takeo Onsen to Nagasaki, with the Shin-Tosu &#; Takeo Onsen section of the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen to remain narrow gauge. GCTs were proposed to provide Shinkansen service from the line's scheduled opening in fiscal , however with the GCT being cancelled, JR Kyushu announced it would provide an interim 'relay' service.[47]
[
edit
]
Compared with air transport, the Shinkansen has several advantages, including scheduling frequency and flexibility, punctual operation, comfortable seats, lower carbon emissions, and convenient city-centre terminals.
Shinkansen fares are generally competitive with domestic air fares. From a speed and convenience perspective, the Shinkansen's market share has surpassed that of air travel for journeys of less than 750 km (470 mi), while air and rail remain highly competitive with each other in the 800&#;900 km (500&#;560 mi) range and air has a higher market share for journeys of more than 1,000 km (620 mi).[97]
During snowy weather, the Shinkansen is known to face fewer delays compared to air travel due to snow. One study done in concluded that the Tohoku Shinkansen between Tokyo and Aomori had substantially fewer days with delays longer than 30 minutes compared to air travel.[69]
[
98]
The Shinkansen takes about three to four hours and there are Nozomi trains every 30 minutes, but airlines may provide cheaper fares, attracting price-conscious passengers.[
98]
1
&#;2
hours. ANA is reported to have reduced the number of services from Tokyo to Kanazawa and Toyama from 6 to 4 per day since the Shinkansen extension opened in . The share of passengers travelling this route by air is reported to have dropped from 40% to 10% in the same period.[
82]
[
edit
]
Shinkansen 700T train on a test run on the Taiwan High Speed Rail in September British Rail Class 395 in the United Kingdom, SeptemberRailways using Shinkansen technology are not limited to those in Japan.
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
A 0 Series Shinkansen power car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station. This is one of only two Shinkansen on display in a museum outside of Japan. The 700T Series, operated by Taiwan High Speed Rail, is the first operational Shinkansen type exported outside Japan. Based on the 700 series, they were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and are operated as 12-car sets. They first entered service in January , with a maximum speed of 300 km/h (190 mph).
[
edit
]
The China Railway CRH2 is based on the E2- series design. The trains are built by CSR Sifang Loco & Rolling stocks corporation under a license purchased in from a consortium formed of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, and Hitachi. Trial services started in January .
[
edit
]
A retired 0 Series Shinkansen power car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in . This is one of only two Shinkansen on display in a museum outside of Japan.[99]
The Class 395, part of the A-Train family of rolling stock, incorporates technology from the 400 Series Shinkansen.[100] Twenty nine EMUs were ordered from Hitachi for commuter services on the High Speed 1 line and entered service in June , operating at a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h).[101]
Class 800 eighty bi-mode trains were built by Hitachi for Great Western Railway and London North Eastern Railway, they operate at a maximum speed of 125 mph (200 km/h).[102][better source needed]
Class 801 forty two EMUs were built by Hitachi for London North Eastern Railway, branded as the Azuma, they operate at a maximum speed of 125 mph (200 km/h).[102][better source needed]
Hitachi have continued to build Hitachi A-train family trains for railway operators in the United Kingdom. This has included deliveries of Class 802, Class 803, Class 805, and Class 807 trains to operators such as Great Western Railway, TransPennine Express, and Avanti West Coast. It is expected that from early , East Midlands Railways will deploy new Class 810 trains into service.[103]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
In December , India and Japan signed an agreement for the construction of India's first high speed rail link connecting Mumbai to Ahmedabad, the intention being to initially operate imported E5 Series Shinkansen sets on the line. To be funded primarily through Japanese soft loans, the link was expected to cost up to US$18.6 billion and operational by .[104][105] The project has been delayed by several years, and forecast costs risen. A contract to purchase up to 24 modified E5 sets is expected to be agreed and signed by the end of , with delivery approximately 24 months later.[106] The sets are to incorporate design changes such as the modification of air conditioning system, in order to operate efficiently at temperatures up to 50 degrees Celsius, larger capacity particulate filters, and increased large luggage spaces. One of the goal of Indian Railways is to replace the high-end technical offerings on Japan's train sets with indigenous bio-toilets. Similarly, the primary languages for documentation of facility usage instructions must be Hindi and English.[107][108]
[
edit
]
In , it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~300 mi (480 km) long line using the N700 series rolling stock.[109] The trains are proposed to operate at over 320 km/h (200 mph).[110]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
Japan will provide Shinkansen technology for a high-speed rail link between Bangkok and Chiang Mai under an agreement reached with Thailand on 27 May . Total project costs are estimated in excess of 1 trillion yen ($8.1 billion). Several hurdles remain, however, including securing the funding.[111]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
A private organization dedicated to aiding the Australian Government in delivering high speed rail, Consolidated Land and Rail Australia, has considered purchasing Shinkansen technology or SC Maglev rolling stock for a potential Melbourne-Canberra-Sydney-Brisbane line.[112]
In , the High Speed Rail Authority was established by the Government. The Government committed AU$500 million to progress planning for a future high speed rail network &#; of this, AU$78.8 million was allocated to deliver the business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section, which is expected to be provided to the Government by the end of .[113][114] Japan Railways Group and Hitachi attended an industry briefing on 27 August .[115]
[
edit
]
As part of the Ireland infrastructural upgrade scheme, a high-speed rail network using Shinkansen technology is being investigated along the Cork-Dublin-Belfast axis, spanning the island of Ireland from north to south.[citation needed]
[
edit
]
The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration was in talks with a number of countries concerning high-speed rail, notably Japan, France and Spain. On 16 May , FRA Deputy Chief Karen Rae expressed hope that Japan would offer its technical expertise to Canada and the United States. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood indicated interest in test riding the Japanese Shinkansen in .[116][117]
On 1 June , JR Central Chairman, Yoshiyuki Kasai, announced plans to export both the N700 Series Shinkansen high-speed train system and the SCMaglev to international export markets, including the United States and Canada.[118]
[
edit
]
Japan had promoted its Shinkansen technology to the Government of Brazil for use on the once planned high-speed rail set to link Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Campinas.[119] On 14 November , Japanese Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva talked about this rail project. President Lula asked a consortium of Japanese companies to participate in the bidding process. Prime Minister Aso concurred on the bilateral cooperation to improve rail infrastructure in Brazil, including the Rio&#;São Paulo&#;Campinas high-speed rail line.[120] The Japanese consortium included the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Toshiba.[121][122] Nothing was implemented.
[
edit
]
Vietnam Railways was considering the use of Shinkansen technology for high-speed rail between the capital Hanoi and the southern commercial hub of Ho Chi Minh City, according to the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, citing an interview with Chief Executive Officer Nguyen Huu Bang. The Vietnamese government had already given basic approval for the Shinkansen system, although it still requires financing and formal consent from the prime minister. Vietnam rejected a funding proposal in , so funding for the $56 billion project is uncertain. Hanoi was exploring additional Japanese funding Official Development Assistance as well as funds from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The 1,560-kilometre (970 mi) line would replace the current colonial-era rail line. Vietnam hoped to launch high-speed trains by and planned to start by building three sections, including a 90 km (56 mi) stretch between the central coastal cities of Da Nang and Hu&#;, seen as potentially most profitable. Vietnam Railways had sent engineers to Central Japan Railway Company for technical training.[123][124]
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
194,800 million yen
[
edit
]
[
edit
]
&#;&#;
, literally &#;narrow path&#; or &#;narrow track&#;). But compared to Standard Gauge, it&#;s never been all that heavily used outside of Japan. For more detail, and some information on additional gauges and who uses them in Japan, see myUse of rails that are 1,435 mm apart (4&#; 8.5&#;) is so common around the world that this has come to be called &#;Standard Gauge&#; track. But most of the track in Japan doesn&#;t use this. Why? Well, that&#;s something of a mystery, although there are a few facts which point to a fairly obvious conclusion: British influence. It&#;s also the case that Standard Gauge, while common in modern English-speaking countries, only accounts for a little more than half the rail-miles (or rail-km) in use today, and had a lesser share in the past.Japan&#;s Shinkansen lines are all built to Standard Gauge, because trains are more stable, and can go faster, on wider track. Some other lines in Japan use 1,372 mm (4&#; 6&#;) or 762 mm (30&#;) gauge. But the majority, over 83% in terms of distance, of Japan&#;s railways are built to Cape Gauge , 1,067 mm (3&#; 6&#;). The name comes from its adoption in by the Cape Colony (later part of the Union of South Africa). But by then it had been around for nearly a century, originally for horse-drawn railways in England and Wales, and later steam railways around the world, including Australia, Canada and other locations. And, as of , Japan, where it is known as Kyōki (, literally &#;narrow path&#; or &#;narrow track&#;). But compared to Standard Gauge, it&#;s never been all that heavily used outside of Japan. For more detail, and some information on additional gauges and who uses them in Japan, see my Prototype Track page.Although railways have their ultimate origin in mining technology in Germany c. AD, common carrier railways are a British invention, first with horses and later with steam engines. And the origins of standard gauge for railway use trace back to one railway engineer, albeit an influential one: George Stephenson . He was influenced by track used in coal mines in his region, notably the Killingworth mine (other areas used other gauges) and chose 1,422 mm (4&#; 8&#;) for the coal-hauling common carrier Stockton and Darlington Railway (originally using horse-drawn wagons) in , with the intent that this would eventually become a standard gauge for public lines.There&#;s a myth, or urban legend, that standard gauge spacing derives from the spacing of ruts on ancient Roman roads, put there for &#;war chariots&#; and adopted when rails were first laid on existing stone roadways. This is sometimes credited to Stephenson, even though he didn&#;t design the Killingworth railway. There are several other problems with the idea: first, the Romans never used chariots for war (see this PDF and this history of British use ), although they did use a variety of cars, carts and &#;gigs&#; (see this history ). Second: the earliest known railways, dating from the sixteenth century, were used for hand-pushed mine carts and used a relatively narrow gauge (480 mm, or 1&#; 6-7/8&#;), because mine tunnels were small. And finally, Roman roads outside of cities were often paved in gravel, not stone, and ruts were mainly a feature of locations with close clearances (e.g., urban roads), see this description of roads in Roman Britain There is, however, a somewhat indirect relationship of standard gauge to historic trends for wagon design. Many cultures have ended up with wheeled vehicles with a wheel spacing between 4&#; 6&#; (1,372 mm) and 5&#; ( mm), likely because of trade-offs in wagon capacity and stability (wider is better), roadway construction cost (wider is more expensive), and the desire to use paired draft animals (which have varied in size over the centuries, so no single number is likely to be correct). This covers the range of most larger-gauge railways as well, although there have been both larger (broad gauge) and smaller (narrow gauge) spacings used.The oldest known implied wheel spacing comes from a Babylonian design for roads made from two parallel rows of stone blocks on 5&#; ( mm) centers, suggesting that that was the average wheel spacing (in the unlikely case flanged wheels were used, the gauge to the inside of the blocks was about 4&#;, or 1,220 mm). In this case, 5&#; equated to 3 cubits in the measurement system of ancient Babylon, so the spacing may have been simply chosen as a nice round number.Many ancient societies cut ruts in stone-paved roads to guide wagons where safety (e.g., mountain roads) or clearance (e.g., city roads) were issues. The ancient Greeks made extensive use of ruts, all apparently cut to a standard center spacing of 1,630 mm (5&#; 4&#;). The Romans used ruts in urban streets to guide wagon wheels past the stepping stones used at intersections for pedestrian crossings. These were primarily for delivery wagons as vehicle use in cities was generally prohibited during the day and Romans either walked or were carried in lecticia (litters).The Roman roads used grooves of about 60 mm width (2 3/8&#;) and an average spacing of 1,440 mm (4&#; 9&#;), which likely is the source of the urban legend. However, &#;gauge&#; refers to the distance between inside edges of the rails, not the center of the rail as a wheel rut would be spaced, so those ruts would have a gauge of 1,380 mm (4&#; 6&#;). And further, while those were the sizes measured in Pompeii and Herculaneum, both geographically close and preserved by the same volcanic eruption, measurements of other Roman cities showed other center-spacings, down to 4&#; 6&#; (1,380 mm). So even in Roman design, there is no reason to believe that there was a single standard in use.Certainly there is evidence that for thousands of years, many different civilizations have found approximately 1,450 mm to be a good spacing for wheels on a variety of vehicles. That&#;s also about the width of two horses, so a road had to be at least that wide in most places, but not necessarily much wider, and thus that was an upper bound on wheel spacing in some locations. However, it was approximate at best, and you could say the same thing about five feet (1,525 mm, another common rail spacing). Standard gauge thus relates to pre-railway vehicle design, but it&#;s not as simple as saying that it copied an existing standard for road construction. Many early railway vehicles were built by existing carriage-makers and were simply wagons or carriages with their wheels replaced, so the size of vehicles chosen by a given railway may have dictated their rail spacing.It&#;s also a fact that while Standard Gauge is fairly common today, particularly in some countries, that hasn&#;t always been the case. In the early days a variety of gauges competed, and even today lots of other gauges are in use. As Wikipedia will tell you, Standard Gauge is in use by more than half the railway lines in the world. But when railways were just getting started, things were a lot more free-form, because each railway line was seen as an independent system. It took years, and a fair bit of bureaucracy, for the benefit of running cars, even whole trains, between one company&#;s rails and another&#;s to be realized, and even then it was mainly the &#;common carriers&#; who did that, many specialty railroads to this day aren&#;t connected to anyone else and a number still use different gauges.By the middle of the nineteenth century people had begun to settle on country-specific standard gauges. England was mostly using &#;standard gauge&#; by . The U.S. moved more slowly, and although many railroads were standardized earlier, and the construction of the transcontinental railroad was required by law to use standard gauge, many did not standardize until . Prior to then, 11,500 miles (18,500 km) of 5&#; gauge railways existed in the U.S., alongside a variety of other gauges.Substantial construction in the &#;s and later was still being done in gauges narrower than standard gauge. Often these were railroads in isolated areas, either specific to an industry (e.g., forestry or plantation railroads) or common carriers in remote places. In the U.S., both Eastern and Western railroads were built in narrow gauge after . Britain used narrow gauges in a number of colonial regions.The countries of the former Soviet Union also standardized, but on 5&#; (1,524 mm), later refined to 1,500 mm (4&#; 11&#;). This was the former Russian Empire&#;s standard gauge dating from , which in turn was influenced by their hiring of an American engineer who was familiar with 5&#; gauge railways in the United States. Today, 1,500 mm is the second most common railway gauge.In a similar manner, Japan was probably influenced by the engineers it hired to help develop its initial railways, who were largely British, when it adopted 1,067 mm (3&#; 6&#;) as its informal standard gauge for railway construction over the next century. They weren&#;t unaware of Standard Gauge&#;s increasing dominance, but they chose another path and stuck to it.In the middle to late nineteenth century railroads were being built in a number of places that didn&#;t have the potential for high-volume cargo or passenger traffic. In the absence of good roads, and few roads at that time were more than cart tracks, a railroad was essential to the economic prosperity of a region, or to getting at resources from remote forests (lumber) or mines (coal, iron, etc). It costs less to build a railroad with rails closer together: cuts and fills are smaller, bridges use less wood or iron, and curves can be sharper, which avoids other costs of construction. The downside is that such trains can carry less maximum weight. But on a marginal railroad, building inexpensively is important to long-term financial health. Or so it seemed anyway; the fact that outside of Japan few of these railroads survived into the age of automobiles tends to argue against that being true.The first full-size steam locomotive in Japan may have been a 762 mm (30&#;) gauge one imported to Nagasaki in by a Scottish trader, Thomas Blake Glover, although there is some controversy over that, and it was never used commercially. The first commercial railroad was built from the port city of Yokohama on Tōkyō Bay to Tōkyō from to by a British consulting engineer, George Preston White and a number of other British engineers, including William Morel who oversaw the surveying and construction of the line. The British employees would gradually be replaced by Japanese engineers, many of whom had trained in England. However the decision to use Cape Gauge for this line was made in early , prior to even Morel&#;s hiring.Dan Free, in his book Early Japanese Railways: - (from which the above Japanese history comes) notes a number of factors that suggest that White made the decision, based on his experience with lines of that gauge being built in India, although there is no documentary evidence. Morel is sometime given the credit instead, but this seems less plausible.Certainly that first line from Yokohama was built on a budget. The Japanese government was new, and utterly lacking in foreign currency, yet had to hire both expensive consultants and purchase equipment overseas. Money was raised by bonds sold in London guaranteed by future revenue (and further guaranteed by the Japanese government). But there wasn&#;t a lot of money considering that they had to create a technological system from scratch halfway around the world from suppliers. Cost-saving would have been the name of the game, and narrow gauge had a reputation for reducing initial capital.Although the government didn&#;t nationalize the railways until , it took a strong central role in standardization, and apparently chose to continue with the gauge it had started with, causing most later railways to be built to that gauge. Some private railways chose other gauges, including standard gauge, and in particular a number of small regional railways used and still use 762 mm (30&#;) gauge. But most were built to Cape Gauge.In subsequent years, particularly from to , the Japanese would try, repeatedly, to switch to standard gauge out of a desire for higher speed, heavier tonnage, or simply for ease of purchasing equipment overseas. Several of these attempts were put off by the government on military grounds, as the existence of an odd gauge made use of railway lines by a potential invader more difficult. By , the nationalized Japanese Government Railways operated 12,864 km (7,993 mi) of track and it would have been very expensive to convert. And by then, the technology was entirely locally-made, and imports were no longer a concern. It wasn&#;t until the first high speed Shinkansen line was built in the &#;s that Japan would finally get a large-scale standard gauge line.And there you have it: the mystery is still a mystery at heart, but the likely reason most Japanese railways are narrow gauge rather than standard gauge was that original choice by a British engineer, influenced by cost concerns.References:Early Japanese Railways: - , by Dan Free, Tuttle Publishing, This book covers the early history of railroading in Japan (and is well worth owning for anyone interested in Japanese railroads, even if like me your focus is on modern ones).The Evolution of Railways, 2nd Ed., by Charles E. Lee, Railway Gazette, This book covers the historical sources for railway gauges, including ancient roadway design.
The company is the world’s best 136re Rail supplier. We are your one-stop shop for all needs. Our staff are highly-specialized and will help you find the product you need.