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What are lithium-ion batteries, anyway? Let&#;s talk about their use cases and how to best maintain their charge for a long lifespan.
Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion) are an industry standard for mobile power sources. They appear in our daily lives, from powering electronic vehicles, lawnmowers, chainsaws, and phones to smart thermometers like FireBoard 2 and Spark. When compared to other rechargeable batteries, lithium-ion batteries have a high energy density, which provides more power in a smaller, lighter package. When it comes to charging, Li-ion can be charged quickly and has a low self-discharge rate, meaning it retains its power when not being used.
Best of all, Li-ion batteries have no memory effect, meaning they can be charged at any percentage of charge without adversely affecting the overall battery life capacity. Any user of Ni-Cad batteries from years ago can attest to what a fantastic advancement this is.
Since these batteries have proven themselves and are here for the duration, we&#;ve compiled a list of best charging practices to maximize the performance of Li-ion (Lithium-ion) batteries.
Use the charger provided by the device manufacturer or a compatible charger per their specifications. FireBoard2 devices are also USB-PD compatible , which means they can support a high charge rate while also providing power to drive a fan.
Charge partially over fully. Since there is no memory effect, partially charging a Li-ion over a deep discharge-charge cycle is favorable. Complete charge cycles can deplete the life span of the battery. Generally, keep the battery charge between 20-80% before it drops to very low levels, and avoid a full charge.
Keep device software or firmware up to date. FireBoard devices use a smart battery charging chip, enabling us to release updates that optimize charging performance.
Avoid charging in thermal extremes and use with a range of 68-77ºF, which can degrade performance and reduce the battery&#;s lifespan.
For long-term or seasonal storage, maintain a charge level half of full capacity. Also, avoid storing a Li-ion battery in a fully discharged state.
Replace when necessary. It is important to understand that all batteries have a limited life span and have a finite number of charge cycles they can receive. When you notice a significant decline in charge life, a battery replacement may be necessary. Always be sure to properly dispose of batteries
To maximize the performance of a Li-ion, manufacturers need to use charging integrated circuits, or ICs, designed to manage the charging process efficiently and safely.
FireBoard Labs sourced a smart battery charging chip from Texas Instruments with many features that monitor safe charging and operation. One such feature is a safety timer, which, as FireBoard Electrical Engineer Harold Tarun explains, &#;is used to prevent extended charging cycles due to abnormal battery conditions.&#; He says this integrated circuit also includes a &#;thermal regulation [that] reduces the charge current when the junction temperature exceeds a set amount.&#;
The risks associated with lesser charging ICs include reduced battery lifespan and overcharging, which can damage the battery or cause a malfunction.
Harold also explained that the charging chip on the FireBoard 2 series features a boost mode that will increase the voltage when it is low to give longer usable battery life.
Our mAh Battery Pack uses a Li-ion battery for all of the benefits mentioned in this article. If you&#;re looking to pick up a new mobile battery pack that recharges via USB-C cable, you&#;ve come to the right place!
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Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed to be the exception. Battery scientists talk about energies flowing in and out of the battery as part of ion movement between anode and cathode. This claim carries merits but if the scientists were totally right, then the battery would live forever. They blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped, but as with all battery systems, internal corrosion and other degenerative effects also known as parasitic reactions on the electrolyte and electrodes still play a role. (See BU-808b: What causes Li-ion to die?)
The Li ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that has similarities to the lead acid system. The differences with Li-ion lie in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerances and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead acid offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting because Li-ion cannot accept overcharge. The so-called miracle charger that promises to prolong battery life and gain extra capacity with pulses and other gimmicks does not exist. Li-ion is a &#;clean&#; system and only takes what it can absorb.
Li-ion with the traditional cathode materials of cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum typically charge to 4.20V/cell. The tolerance is +/&#;50mV/cell. Some nickel-based varieties charge to 4.10V/cell; high capacity Li-ion may go to 4.30V/cell and higher. Boosting the voltage increases capacity, but going beyond specification stresses the battery and compromises safety. Protection circuits built into the pack do not allow exceeding the set voltage.
Figure 1 shows the voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes through the stages for constant current and topping charge. Full charge is reached when the current decreases to between 3 and 5 percent of the Ah rating.
Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a set level. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a topping charge when the voltage drops.
The advised charge rate of an Energy Cell is between 0.5C and 1C; the complete charge time is about 2&#;3 hours. Manufacturers of these cells recommend charging at 0.8C or less to prolong battery life; however, most Power Cells can take a higher charge C-rate with little stress. Charge efficiency is about 99 percent and the cell remains cool during charge.
Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF) when reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Discontinue using the battery or charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) under moderate charging speeds.
Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to 3 percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further. Elevated self-discharge might be the cause of this condition.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker, the saturation charge will take longer accordingly. With higher current, Stage 1 is shorter but the saturation during Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge because a high voltage stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold or eliminating the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Chargers for consumer products go for maximum capacity and cannot be adjusted; extended service life is perceived less important.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified &#;charge-and-run&#; method that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2 saturation charge. &#;Ready&#; appears when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage 1. State-of-charge (SoC) at this point is about 85 percent, a level that may be sufficient for many users.
Certain industrial chargers set the charge voltage threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life. Table 2 illustrates the estimated capacities when charged to different voltage thresholds with and without saturation charge. (See also BU-808: How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries)
Charge V/cell
Capacity at cut-off voltage*
Charge time
Capacity with full saturation
3.80
~40%
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120 min
~65%
3.90
~60%
135 min
~75%
4.00
~70%
150 min
~80%
4.10
~80%
165 min
~90%
4.20
~85%
180 min
100%
Table 2: Typical charge characteristics of lithium-ionAdding full saturation at the set voltage boosts the capacity by about 10 percent but adds stress due to high voltage.
When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This behavior can be compared to lifting a weight with a rubber band, causing a lag. The capacity will eventually catch up when the battery is almost fully charged (Figure 3). This charge characteristic is typical of all batteries. The higher the charge current is, the larger the rubber-band effect will be. Cold temperatures or charging a cell with high internal resistance amplifies the effect.
The capacity trails the charge voltage like lifting a heavy weight with a rubber band.
Estimating SoC by reading the voltage of a charging battery is impractical; measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) after the battery has rested for a few hours is a better indicator. As with all batteries, temperature affects the OCV, so does the active material of Li-ion. SoC of smartphones, laptops and other devices is estimated by coulomb counting. (See BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge)
Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge. When fully charged, the charge current must be cut off. A continuous trickle charge would cause plating of metallic lithium and compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the lithium-ion battery at the peak cut-off as short as possible.
Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop. This eases the voltage stress. Over time, the open circuit voltage will settle to between 3.70V and 3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that has received a fully saturated charge will keep the voltage elevated for a longer than one that has not received a saturation charge.
When lithium-ion batteries must be left in the charger for operational readiness, some chargers apply a brief topping charge to compensate for the small self-discharge the battery and its protective circuit consume. The charger may kick in when the open circuit voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again at 4.20V/cell. Chargers made for operational readiness, or standby mode, often let the battery voltage drop to 4.00V/cell and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead of the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related stress and prolongs battery life.
Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the ON position. The current drawn through the device is called the parasitic load and can distort the charge cycle. Battery manufacturers advise against parasitic loads while charging because they induce mini-cycles. This cannot always be avoided and a laptop connected to the AC main is such a case. The battery might be charged to 4.20V/cell and then discharged by the device. The stress level on the battery is high because the cycles occur at the high-voltage threshold, often also at elevated temperature.
A portable device should be turned off during charge. This allows the battery to reach the set voltage threshold and current saturation point unhindered. A parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the battery voltage and preventing the current in the saturation stage to drop low enough by drawing a leakage current. A battery may be fully charged, but the prevailing conditions will prompt a continued charge, causing stress.
While the traditional lithium-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.60V, Li-phosphate (LiFePO) makes an exception with a nominal cell voltage of 3.20V and charging to 3.65V. Relatively new is the Li-titanate (LTO) with a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V and charging to 2.85V. (See BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion)
Chargers for these non cobalt-blended Li-ions are not compatible with regular 3.60-volt Li-ion. Provision must be made to identify the systems and provide the correct voltage charging. A 3.60-volt lithium battery in a charger designed for Li-phosphate would not receive sufficient charge; a Li-phosphate in a regular charger would cause overcharge.
Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however, the battery becomes unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified voltage. Prolonged charging above 4.30V on a Li-ion designed for 4.20V/cell will plate metallic lithium on the anode. The cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and produces carbon dioxide (CO2). The cell pressure rises and if the charge is allowed to continue, the current interrupt device (CID) responsible for cell safety disconnects at 1,000&#;1,380kPa (145&#;200psi). Should the pressure rise further, the safety membrane on some Li-ion bursts open at about 3,450kPa (500psi) and the cell might eventually vent with flame. (See BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe)
Venting with flame is connected with elevated temperature. A fully charged battery has a lower thermal runaway temperature and will vent sooner than one that is partially charged. All lithium-based batteries are safer at a lower charge, and this is why authorities will mandate air shipment of Li-ion at 30 percent state-of-charge rather than at full charge. (See BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air)
The threshold for Li-cobalt at full charge is 130&#;150ºC (266&#;302ºF); nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is 170&#;180ºC (338&#;356ºF) and Li-manganese is about 250ºC (482ºF). Li-phosphate enjoys similar and better temperature stabilities than manganese. (See also BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion and BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe)
Lithium-ion is not the only battery that poses a safety hazard if overcharged. Lead- and nickel-based batteries are also known to melt down and cause fire if improperly handled. Properly designed charging equipment is paramount for all battery systems and temperature sensing is a reliable watchman.
Charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler than nickel-based systems. The charge circuit is straight forward; voltage and current limitations are easier to accommodate than analyzing complex voltage signatures, which change as the battery ages. The charge process can be intermittent, and Li-ion does not need saturation as is the case with lead acid. This offers a major advantage for renewable energy storage such as a solar panel and wind turbine, which cannot always fully charge the battery. The absence of trickle charge further simplifies the charger. Equalizing charger, as is required with lead acid, is not necessary with Li-ion.
Consumer and most industrial Li-ion chargers charge the battery fully. They do not offer adjustable end-of-charge voltages that would prolong the service life of Li-ion by lowering the end charge voltage and accepting a shorter runtime. Device manufacturers fear that such an option would complicate the charger. Exceptions are electric vehicles and satellites that avoid full charge to achieve long service life.
[1] Courtesy of Cadex
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