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The behavior of the developed BF/PCS composite under tensile loading is as presented in Fig. 2. Variations in fiber and particulate loading affect the tensile behaviour of the composites. At 2% PCS, the tensile strength was observed to increase with fiber loading from 5 to 30 wt% presenting an increase of up to 63 MPa at 30 wt% BF when compared with 0/0 of BF/PCS. The rise may be due to coalesce of the fiber and filler particulate58. Good wettability of the particulate and BF fiber to the matrix enhanced adhesion, thereby inhibiting dislocation movement59. Incorporation of 4 wt% PCS, tensile strength appreciated in values from 5 to 20 wt% which can be linked to enhanced interfacial adhesion between fiber and matrix and proper filling of PCS. Admixture of 25–30 wt% BF and 4 wt% PCS resulted in a reduction in tensile strength observed occasioned by possible coagulation of particles (Fig. 8), of which the agglomeration point served as the region of storage of residual stress within the matrix60. Similarly, the same experience was noted when the particle portion was 6 and 8 wt%. General trend noted is that the tensile strength improved with fiber loading up to 20 wt% for particulate presence of 2–8 wt%, while it increased from 5 to 30 wt% for 2 wt% particle loading.
Figure 2Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on tensile strength and modulus of elasticity for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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Increasing PCS proportion beyond 4 wt% amounted to lower tensile strength. Observation (Fig. 2) made with intermix of 2 wt% PCS and 0–30 wt% BF corroborates the observations made by61,62,63,64 in which tensile strength trended upward from 0 to 30 wt%. Also, the study of65 revealed an increase in tensile strength up to 6 wt% particulate cassava peel in the presence of 4.5 wt% palm kernel shell fiber.
Modulus of elasticity as represented in Fig. 2 shows an appreciation in MOE values with increased fiber loading up to 30 wt% at 2 wt% of PCS addition on account of enhanced interfacial bonding and coalesce of fibers and particulate. Incorporation of 4, 6, and 8 wt% PCS, there was an uptrend in MOE fiber on integration of 5–20 wt% BF, while a reduction in MOE was observed on addition of 25–30 wt% BF, based on stress concentration and possible friction between particles and fiber, the consequence of which amounted to lower stiffness. Authors65 achieved higher MOE when 6 wt% particulate was incorporated in epoxy, the result of which affirms our finding of this study. In this case, integration of BF up to 20 wt% gave the maximum value for all particulate additions. Presence of fibers and particulates forms an obstacle to the free movement of dislocation66 effectuating the enhanced stiffness. According to67, the enhanced MOE as 10 wt% Doum Palm Shell Particle (sieved to 150 and 300 µm) in polypropylene. The result also confirms to the observation of68 in which egg shell powder improved the modulus of elasticity of polypropylene. MOE was noted to depreciate from 20 to 35 wt% particulate in69.
From the plot in Fig. 3, it was noted that the flexural strength increased with fiber loading amounting to the attenuation of flexural strength on the addition of 2 wt% BF. This occurred by dint of coalesce between BF and PCS. Flexural strength on incorporation of 4, 6 wt% PCS amounted to accretion in FS value at fiber loading 5–20 wt% after which there was a decline in value (from 25 to 30 wt%). Inclusion of 8 wt% PCS impart a rise in flexural strength up to 10 wt% BF after which there was a progressive reduction in strength. The reason for this is on account of the agglomeration of filler particles (PCS), hence serving as a point of stress concentration. Authors70 assigned this event to poor stress transfer within interfaces. The highest flexural strength was 60 MPa at BF/PCS fraction of 30/3 wt%; a rise of 61% relative to proportion of 0/0 wt% additive. Highest value for flexural strength on addition of 4, 6, and 8 wt% PCS are 52.8, 44.5, and 38.6 MPa. This discloses a reduction in flexural strength with higher PCS proportion based on particulate agglomeration and fiber entanglement.
Figure 3Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on flexural strength and modulus of rupture for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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Modulus of rupture (MOR) similarly followed the same pattern as unfolded in Fig. 3. MOR improved on the integration of 2 wt% PCS and fiber proportion 5–30 wt%. Enhancement in rigidity is attributable to enhanced interfacial bonding between fiber/particulate and matrix. Blending of 6 wt% of matrix showed enhancement in rigidity from 5 to 20 wt% BF; result which corroborates the observations made in71,72. Similar experience occurred when 6 wt% PCS in FM rose from 5 to 20 wt%, although at reducing value when compared with the value obtained under 4 wt%. Studies of73,74,75 affirm the result obtained. Utilization of bamboo fiber in76 presented an uptrend in modulus of rupture of epoxy-bamboo fiber composites up to 30 wt% BF affirming the usefulness of bamboo fiber in improving flexural rigidity. Reduction in rupture modulus from 25 to 30 wt% BF (2, 4, and 6 wt% PCS) and 15–30 wt% BF (12 wt% PCS) is linked to entanglement with the matrix58. The highest value was recorded on the blending of 30 wt% BF/3 wt% PCS value of 4.71 (0/0 wt% additive) by 53%.
The density of BF/BCF–PVC composite varied with additive proportion (Fig. 4). Average density of the sample containing 0/0 additive is 1.37, meanwhile this value reduced on the inclusion of 2, 4, 6, and 8 wt% PCS and 5 wt% fiber. It was observed that with increasing proportion of PCS, the density reduced owing to the light weight of particulate coconut shell. The results by Ref.77 show a lowering of density as the coconut shell powder filler increased, further corroborating in this study. In this study, the density of the composite depreciated with increasing fiber loading from 10 to 30 wt% BF. Incorporation of bamboo fiber and coconut shell powder resulted in lowering of densities. Lowering of density of BP/PCS PVC composite is beneficial in that the laptop must be light weight for easier carriage and portability. Diminishing values in density can be associated with lower density of fiber compared to the polymer.
Figure 4Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on relative density and water retention for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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Water absorption results for samples reinforced with BF/PCS of varied proportion are as illustrated in Fig. 4. Water retention (%) trended upward with PCS proportion owing to the hydrophilic nature of the particulate78. Authors79 confirmed this result as par coconut shell powder addition. Water retention rose as PCS increased on the introduction of PCS from 2 to 6 wt% intermixed with BF from 5 to 30 wt%. A distinct finding made was that the incorporation of 8 wt% gave a steady increase when blended with 5 and 10% BF. Further blending of 15–20 wt% BF, there was an exponential rise in water retention accruing to the fact that PCS and BF fiber, which are hydrophilic, are occupying more volume resulting in higher water retention. Moreover, at that proportion, water penetration weakens the bond between fiber and matrix causing fiber detachment, hence leading to more water suction. Author80, studied the effect of coconut shell powder on the properties of polyurethane and he observed an increase in water absorption of the matrix with further addition of the biofiller. Just as obtained in81,82, water retention increased with BF addition. Further corroboration to this work is expressed in83,84,85.
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Impact strength of the composites developed with respect to bamboo fiber/particulate coconut shell additive as presented in Fig. 5 was observed to rise with fiber loading from 5 to 30 wt% for samples knitted with 2 wt% PCS. Intermix of 5–15 wt% BF and 4 wt% PCS also enhanced the impact strength. Enhanced interfacial adhesion and even distribution of fillers within a matrix reducing interparticle distance provoke even stress distribution within the matrix thereby effectuating higher impact strength86. However, intermix of 20–30 wt% fiber and 2/4/6 wt% PCS resulted in depreciation in impact strength and this is ascribed to fiber agglomeration which serves as portion of stress concentration; thereby instigating brittleness within matrix. Interface at 6/8 wt% PCS at fiber loading of 5 and 10 wt% improved the impact strength and this can be credited to even stress distribution and enhanced interaction between fibers and particles under stress. However, at 6 and 8 wt% the the tendency for particle agglomeration increased, a consequence of which resulted in the lowering of strength at fiber loading 15–30 wt%. Observations made in this study can be linked to the study of87 in which the impact strength reduced with fiber loading up to 30 wt%. Similarly, wood fiber incorporated into polypropylene was reported to reduce the impact strength at increased fiber loading up to 40 wt%88.
Figure 5Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on Izod impact strength and compressive strength for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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The test was carried out on cylindrical samples of composites 40 mm in diameter and 80 mm in length and carried out as per ASTM D 69553. From Fig. 5, the compressive strength appreciated significantly with PCS loading from 2 to 8 wt% for all proportion of fiber content. Further observation is the marginal rise in compressive strength with fiber loading when considering the effect of the fiber on the strength under 2, 4, and 8% PCS. It can be inferred that particulate has a significant effect on the composites while BF has marginal effect on the compressive strength of the composite. Compressive strength was observed to peak at 55.2 MPa, an increase of 72.5% rise (relative to compressive strength of control 0 wt% PCS/BF) associated with the even distribution of PCS particles within the matrix. Compressive strength was detected to reduce at 8 wt% PCS loading. Agglomeration of particles is responsible for this, hence, during loading, residual stress were stored, amounting to lower strength against compressive stress. Observation depicted in89 corroborates the findings noted in this study as compressive strength reduced at 8 wt% fiber loading.
Hardness was observed to increase with particulate and fiber bonding (Fig. 6). Enhanced interfacial adhesion promotes hardness which may be due to the strong adhesion of alkaline treated BF to PVC matrix. Additionally, PCS presence serves as a filler reducing the interparticle distance, repercussion of which amounted to improved hardness. Maximum hardness was attained at intermix at 30 wt% BF and 8 wt% PCS, a rise of 61%. Results obtained by Ref.90 revealed a progressive rise in hardness from 0 to 20% fiber used even as confirmed in this study.
Figure 6Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on hardness and wear loss index for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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The hardness depicted in this study conforms to the findings of91 where shore hardness was reported to increase with rising glass fiber/titania particles intermix. Authors78 also affirmed the increased Rockwell hardness of polymer matrix reinforced with coconut shell powder.
Wear resistance of the composite was evaluated by measuring weight loss during test. Lower weight loss depicts higher abrasion resistance (Fig. 6). Similar to the study of92 who studied the wear behaviour of polyvinyl pyrrolidone composite incorporated with date palm leave fiber. It was observed in the study that weight loss reduced with fiber loading irrespective of the load applied during test. Similar result was reported by Ref.93 the wear rate reduced as the percentage carbonized bone increased.
Increase in abrasion resistance with fiber and particulate loading is traceable to the enhanced cohesion within particles of the composites enabled by the fusion of coconut shell particles in the matrix. Fiber inclusions may also promotes abrasion resistance due to strong attachment to the matrix. The study of94 depicted a reduction in wear rate by increasing coir powder and coir fiber content. Wear rate was noted to decrease with increasing coir powder loading down to 25%. As observed in this study, wear loss was more pronounced with increasing powder presence than fiber, which is associated with ease of disengagement of particles than fiber95.
Thermal conductivity of the composite developed increased marginally with PCS loading as presented in Fig. 7. Introduction of PCS led to a reduction of porosity promoting cohesion within particles in the matrix; thereby enhancing interparticle interaction. Thermal activation of particles amounts to excitation and gyration enabling the transfer of thermal energy from one particle to the next. Previous studies on the composite revealed an appreciation in thermal conductivity with a rise in copper particulate fraction96 and further confirmed by Ref.97.
Figure 7Influence of bamboo fiber fraction on thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 wt% fiber loading.
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Proportional rise in BF incorporated shows a lowering of thermal conductivity despite it has been treated. Natural fibers are characterized with inherent pores and higher volume presence in matrix, introduce a slight rise in porosity, and in effect, leads to a decrease in thermal conductivity owing to the distance between particles and the possible bridges in thermal transmission. This trend was in line with study carried out by Ref.98. Previous studies of99, revealed the decrease in thermal conductivity with increasing abaca fiber due to increase void with fiber loading, an observervation further corroborated in100.
Coconut shell powder and bamboo fiber have poor electrical conductivity101,102. Presence of PCS in increasing proportion reduced the electrical conductivity (Fig. 7). With higher fiber fraction, the electrical conductivity also depreciated103. Lower electrical conductivity shows enhanced insulation properties, hence qualifying for insulation application. Lowest conductivity was reported at 30 wt% BF and 8 wt% PCS (0.91 S/m) gives 62% enhancement reduction in thermal conductivity with respect to control. From the report, increasing the proportion of BF and PCS enhances the insulation properties.
The representative morphological features of composite samples developed are as displayed in Fig. 8.
Figure 8Morphological SEM image of compsoites amples reinforced with (a) 4 wt% PCS/20 wt% BF (b) 4 wt% PCS/25 wt% BF (c) 4 wt% PCS/30 wt% BF (d) 2 wt% PCS/20 wt% BF (e) 4 wt% PCS 3 wt% BF (f) 2 wt% PCS/5 wt% BF (g) 2 wt% PCS/30 wt% BF (h) 4 wt% PCS/30 wt% BF.
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Figure 8 presents morphological images of selected samples representing the selected mixes of images presenting microstructural features. Particulate distribution in high quantity amounts to agglomeration of particles as indicated in Fig. 8b,c, and h. These points of agglomeration serve as the stress concentration points eventually amounting to the lowering of strength as observed under compressive strength and impact strength. Figure 8d reflected the fiber observed fiber overlap within the matrix, which eventually amounts to fiber clog as seen in Fig. 8h, the consequence of which reduces strength on the dint of uneven stress distribution. Coalesce of fibers and particulates (Fig. 8a,e,f, and g) indicates even stress distribution among particulates, fibers and matrix enhancing strength. Consequence of this was reflected in the increase in tensile and flexural strength, moduli of elasticity and rupture, impact strength, and compressive strength. The closeness of these particles by dint of reduced interparticle distances allows the transfer of heat when thermally agitated, eventually causing a rise in thermal conductivity as reflected in the uptrend in thermal conductivity with increasing PCS loading. However, based on the lower conductivity of the fiber, the conductivity reduced with increasing fiber loading. Inverse position was taken as the par electrical conductivity in that increasing proportion of fibers and particulates presented depreciation in the property value based on incoherence distribution of fibers and particulates as observed in the micrographs (Fig. 8c,d, and h).
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